FIGURES OF SPEECH

DEFINITION OF FIGURES OF SPEECH

Figures of speech are special words used in sentences to create pictures and imaginations in our minds. They help us to understand exactly what the speaker is talking about. Therefore figures of speech can simply be defined as the words which are used for vivid or dramatic effect. They conjure mental picture in mind and when properly used, they add color to the beauty of a piece of writing especially in poetry.

SOME FIGURES OF SPEECH THAT ARE OFTEN USED ARE:

1.      Metaphor
2.      Simile
3.      Personification
4.      Alliteration
5.      Irony
6.      Euphemism
7.      Climax
8.      Onomatopoeia
9.      Allegory
10. Bathos
11. Rhetorical question and
12. Assonance
13. Hyperbole

1.      Metaphor: This is a direct comparison between two things/people which are common in some respect. The attribute of one is directly given to the other. In metaphor, we say A is B.

Examples:

a.      He is a lion
b.      The boy is his father
c.       You are the pillar of your house

*The examples above means that the boy has power like lion, the boy looks like his father, and in the last example Janet is a peacock means that Janet is as proud as a peacock.

2. Simile: This is an indirect comparison between two different things or people but which have some common or similar characteristic(s). Words “like” and “as” is used to make that comparison.

Examples:

a.      Lola is as beautiful as her mother
b.      Stop roaring like a lion
c.       Peter runs like an antelope
 

3. Personification: This is a literary device which gives the attributes of a person to inanimate objects

Examples:

a.      The sun peeped at me through the window
b.      The sun spreads its gentle rays on the earth
c.       Night threaten
d.      Civilization is sweeping our society like wildfire

4. Alliteration: This is the repetition of the same consonant sounds at the beginning of words.

Examples:

a.      The earth is ours to plough and plant (“P” alliterates)
b.      And let lice lick our intestines (“L” alliterates)
c.       Living a life of lovable legend (“L” alliterates)

5. Irony: This is a situation whereby one says something different from what he meant. It is the expression of one’s meaning by saying the direct opposite of what one is thinking but using tone of voice to indicate one’s real meaning.

Example:

a.      Mary has broken the plate, what a nice girl she is!

6. Euphemism: This is a situation where we speak of an unpleasant event in a pleasant way.

Examples:

a.      Mr. Roland has kicked the bucket (died)
b.      She is a woman of easy virtue (She is a prostitute)
c.       The girl has been put in the family way (impregnated)

7. Climax: It is the arrangement of events or incidents in ascending order such that the tension hightens in succession. It is the arrangement of ideas from the lowest to the highest

Example:

a.      Mr. Ben lost his shoes, his children and his wife.

8. Onomatopoeia: It is the formation of words in which the sounds suggest the meaning

Examples:

a.      The barking dog
b.      The canon boon
c.       The thundering rain

9. Bathos: This occurs when there is a sudden change in writing, speech or drama from something important or deeply felt to what is foolish or absurd.

10. Rhetorical Question: This is a type of question that deserves no answers. It is only used to make a statement or produce an effect.

Example:

a.      Should our leaders be so callous?

11. Assonance: This is the repetition of the vowel sounds in a line of poem.

Examples:

a.      Make and date (“A”) assonates)
b.      The stony man in a holy home (“O” assonates)
c.       Hit the wall with this stick (“I” assonates)

12. Oxymoron: This is the placing of opposite or contradictory words or phrases side by side in order to emphasize.

Examples:

a.      It is a painful laughter
b.      Bitter sweet

13. Paradox: It is a statement that contains opposite ideas that makes it look stupid although it may be true

Examples:

a.      The child is the father of the man
b.      More haste, less speed

14. Anti – Climax: This is opposite of climax. It is the arrangement of ideas from the highest to the lowest

Example:

a.      The man lost his wife, his children and his shoes.

15. Hyperbole or exaggeration: This is a situation where a speaker makes something small sounds big. It is the use of over – statement.

Examples:

a.      Flora’s teeth are sharper than razor
b.      I am strong enough to stop a moving train.

16. Pun: It is the humorous use of a word that has two meanings, or of different words that sound the same. It is a play of words.

Examples:

a.      Better be late that be the late. (The first “late means not punctual but the second means dead)
b.      You must a servant in order to be a savant.

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DEFINITION OF LEADERSHIP/FOLLOWERSHIP

DEFINITION OF LEADERSHIP

 

WHAT IS LEADERSHIP
This is a positional head that influence, motivate and mobilize others to work towards achieving the organization goals. In management it is the ability to direct, guide and motivates people towards the attainment of a given set of goals in an organization. A leader is someone that has the ability to influence a group towards the achievement of goals.

 WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EFFECTIVE LEADER AND EFFICIENT LEADER
Effective leader lead by examples and accomplishment while Efficient leader motivate subordinate to voluntarily contribute to the organization goals.

THEORY OF LEADERSHIP
Trait Theory: It states that a leader must posses some quality that fit them to lead others. Since it has to do with interpersonal relationship with others leaders must have ambition and intuition.

Situational Theory: This theory state that this type of leaders emerges as a result of need. Such leader will only operate on the situation that leads to his emergence.

TYPE OF LEADERSHIP

Generally, there are three types of leadership: autocratic, laissez fair and democratic leadership. Others are transactional and transformational leadership.

Autocratic leadership:  This is the leadership style in which the leader is seen as one who commands s and expects compliance. He is dogmatic and positive and leads by the ability to withhold or give rewards and punishment. The hallmark of an autocratic leader is that he does not allow subordinates to participate in decision -making process

Democratic Leadership

: Under this form of leadership, the leader consult with subordinates on proposed actions and decisions and encourage participation from them.

Laissez Fair Leadership: This is the type of leadership in which the leader uses his or her power little, if at all. It give subordinate a high degree of independence in their operation. Under this type of leadership the leader depend largely on subordinates to set their own goals and the means of achieving them.

Transactional and Transformational Leadership: This type of leader tends to be inspirational relying on personal charisma, and ongoing trust in the leader’s ability. It also involves empowering team members to act out of self-generated enthusiasm and interest.

Other types of leadership are (1) Toxic Leadership. (2) Behavioral Leadership and (3) Situational Leadership.


NOTE: There is no one best form of leadership, the entrepreneur or management situation will determine the most appropriate form at a point in time.

WHO IS A LEADER

 A leader is an individual who directs, persuades, induces and inspires others to aspire in other to realize the goals of a group or society.

QUALITIES / CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD LEADER
1. He should have a respectable physique.

2. He should have an all round knowledge.

3. He should have an acceptable personality.

4. He should be self-confidence, posses aggressiveness and adaptability personality

5. He should be determined.

6. He should be sociable_ display interpersonal skills etc.

7. He should have listening ears.

8. He should be altruistic_ thinking of his followers before himself.

9. He should be focus.

10. He should posses a good communication skill.

11. He should be empathizing, putting himself in the shoes of his followers.

12. A good leader should be supportive.

13. A good leader should be fearless.

  
 FUNCTIONS OF A GOOD LEADER

1. To formulate and carried out objectives.

2. To asses assignment with fairness.

3. To delegate authority to the followers.

4. To motivate the followers to aspire.

5. To demonstrate examples

6. To co-ordinate the activities of the followers

7. To represent the group's interest.

8. To gather and spread information.

LEADERSHIP STYLES

1. Autocratic Style: It is the use of force, threat and authority to enforce discipline and ensure compliance.

2. Democratic Style: It is involvement of the followers individually and collectively in making decision relating to goals plans etc.

3. Laissez Faire Style: It involves the exercise of a minimum influence on the followers and readiness to advise them on request

4. Affiliative Style: It is the involvement of the followers in the policy thrust of a social group.

5. Pace-Setting Style: It sets standards which the followers are expected to follow.

FOLLOWERSHIP

This is a process or an act of taking instructions from an individual (a leader). In this regards, a follower is a person who obeys and takes instructions from a leader.

QUALITIES / FEATURES OF A FOLLOWER

1.     He should have a sense of understanding.      
2.     He should be patient.
3.     He should be humble.
4.     He should be conscientious.
5.     He should be supportive.
6.     He should be attentive.
7.     He should be co – operative.

 FUNCTIONS OF A FOLLOWER

The following are some of the functions of followers

1.      To obey the leader.
2.     To assist the leader to carry out objectives of a social group.
3.     To accept and execute delegated authority.
4.     To work as a team with others in order to realize objectives of a social group.
5.     To keep the secrets of the social group
6.   To assist the leader in gathering and spreading information

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DEFINITION AND TYPES OF CLAUSE/ PHRASE

Definition: Clause is a group of words with a finite verb, forming part of a sentence, conveying a meaningful thought.

Types of clause

(1) Main or independent clause
(2) Subordinate or dependent clause

 Main or independent clause: This is type of clause that can stand on his own to make a complete sense or sentence.
 Example: Ken is very kind.

 Subordinate or dependent clause: This is type of clause that does not express a complete thought. It depend on the main clause to make a complete sense.
 Example:
HOW HE KNEW MY NAME still remains a mystery.


 

TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

1.     Noun Clause
2.     Adjectival Clause
3.     Adverbial Clause
 

Noun Clause: This is type of dependent or subordinate clause that functions like a noun in a sentence. The function include.

Subject of a Sentence: is usually found before verb

Examples:  (i) What we ate was tasteless (was)

        (ii)  How he will achieve his goal is not yet known (is)

Object of a Verb: usually find after past-tense

 Examples: (i) We were given what he promised to give    (given)

                   (ii)  The suspect eventually accepted that he was guilty.   Object of the verb (accepted)

Complement of a Subject: It is found after verb:

Examples: (i) The problem now is that he would not com.

                   (ii) The good news is that he passed his examination.

Complement of an Object:

Examples: They made him what he had always wanted.

Complement of a Preposition:

Examples: (i) The presidency will go to whoever wins the election

                   (ii) His action resulted into what his father predicted

Adjectival Clause: This is a subordinate clause which qualifies a noun or a pronoun in the main clause. It performs the functions of an adjective. It is usually introduce by words like, who, whom, whose, that, which, where, when.

Examples:

       I.            This is the book which I bought last week.  (Modify book)

    II.            I don’t know the town where we first lived. (Modify Town)

 III.            The boy who bought the milk left in a hurry. (Modify Boy)

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE:  An adverbial clause is a subordinate clause that often modifies the verb, an adjective or another adverb in a sentence. It modified the verb in the main clause by telling us how, when, where, why, to, what extent, and under what conditions the action of the verb is performed. A comma should not be sued before an adverb clause unless when it begins a sentence.

Adverbial Clauses and Their Conjunction.

a.     Adverbial Clause of Time: Tells the time of an action or event. It indicates when of an action. It is always introduce by until – after, before, when, since, as soon as.

Examples

                   I.            I will see you before I go.

                  II.            I saw him before he traveled.    (It modify by the word saw)

                III.            The chairman left here as soon as the programs ended.

b.     Adverbial Clause of Place: Tells the place of an action or event. Thereby answering the question “where?” It is always introduce by where, wherever etc.

Examples:

                   I.            They have been searching for where he lives

                II.            Wherever you send me, I shall go

c.      Adverbial Clause of Manner: It expresses the manner in which an action is carried out. It is introduce by – as if, as, as though

Examples:

                   I.            The man often boasts as if nobody can challenge is authority.

                  II.            She ran as if her life depended on it.

d.     Adverbial Clause of Reason: It tells the reason for an action or event. It answers the question “why”. It is introduce by because, as, and since.

Example:

                   I.            The contractor had abandoned the project since he was starved of fund

                  II.            They assisted the boy because he needed help.

e.     Adverbial clause of purpose: tells the purpose of an action. It is usually introduced by in case, in order that, that, so that etc.

Examples:

                   I.            He trained hard so that he might make the final list

                  II.            In order to see you, I came from such a long distance.

f.       Adverbial Clause of Condition: Expresses the condition under which an action could take place. It could be introduced by if, unless, provided (that).

Example:

                   I.            I will come if you want me to.

                  II.            We shall send him to Coventry, unless he turns a new leaf.

g.     Adverbial Clause of Result: Tells the effect of an action and it is always introduced by so that, such that.

Example:

                   I.            He performed brilliantly in the competition such that everybody started praising him.

                   II.            He was so busy that he could not attend to anybody.

h.     Adverbial Clause of Concession: It indicate agreement and it is usually introduce by although, even if, though.

Example

                   I.            Although the boy is intelligent he lack respect for elders

                  II.            We shall make it even if this situation persist

i.        Adverbial Clause of Comparison: It tells of likeness between things. It is usually introduce by as, than.

Example:

She took more than she could handle

DEFINITION AND TYPES OF PHRASES

Definition: A phrase is a group of words which contains no finite verb and therefore, makes no complete thought.

TYPES OF PHRASES

1.     Noun phrases

2.     Adjectival phrase

3.     Adverbial phrases

1.     Noun Phrases: A noun phrase is the type that does the duty of a noun. There are different types of noun phrases such as: noun phrases subject, object, in apposition or complement of a verb or object of a preposition.

Noun Phrase Subject – This type of phrase function as noun as well as the subject of the sentence.

Example:

                   I.            To err is human

                II.            The beautiful girl comes here everyday

Function:

Subject of the verb comes

Noun Phrase Object does the duty of a noun but as the object of the sentence.

Example:

                   I.            The chairman will announce the next course of action.

                 II.            James assaulted the lecturer.

Noun Phrase in Apposition comes after another noun in a sentence to provide additional information

Example

Dorathy, Mr. Felix’s wife, is a renowned journalist

Mr. Felix’s wife is an appositive of DORATHY

2.     ADJECTIVAL PHRASE: This type of phrase does the work of an adjective

Example:

The bird in the cage is a pigeon

In the cage qualifies the noun bird.

3.     ADVERBIAL PHRASES: This type of phrase modifies a verb, an adverb or an adjective in a sentence. There are eight types of adverbial phrases. Adverbial phrase of time, place, reason, condition, purpose, manner, result and concession.

i.                Adverbial Phrase Of Time

He helps the poor in times of need

It modifies the verb helps

ii.            Adverbial Phrase Of Place

I put your food on the table. (Answers where?)

It modifies the verb put.

iii.          Adverbial Phrases Of Reason

He was given an award for his dedication to duties.

It modifies was given.

iv.         Adverbial Phrases Of Condition

For him to survive, he needs a quick medical attention.

It modifies the verb needs.

v.           Adverbial Phrases Of Purpose

He studies hard in order to pass

It modifies the verb studies.

vi.         Adverbial Phrase Of Manner

He discovered the error without any stress.

It modifies the verb discovered.

vii.       Adverbial Phrase Of Frequency

The student comes to school twice a week

It modifies the verb comes.

viii.     Adverbial Phrase Of Concession

We still won the match in spite of the hostility against it

It modifies the verb won.

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